Chapter 9 From The Rulers To The Ruled: Types Of Governments

What Is Government? What Are Its Functions?

As we learned previously, a government is the system or group of individuals responsible for governing a country or region. Its fundamental role is to organize society's life, make necessary rules (laws), and ensure that these rules are followed to maintain order and harmony.

The government plays a crucial and extensive role in the lives of citizens. Some of its primary functions include:

• Maintaining law and order to ensure peace and security within society.
• Managing relationships with other countries and handling national defence.
• Providing essential goods and services to the public, such as education, healthcare, and developing necessary infrastructure (like roads, water supply).
• Managing the country's economy and regulating economic activities.
• Working towards the overall welfare and improvement of people's lives.

Governments also perform many other roles essential for the smooth functioning of a country, such as managing public finances, environmental protection, and disaster response.

Different countries have different forms of government. While India has a democratic government, other countries may have different systems. Even democratic governments around the world vary in their structures and functions, reflecting their unique histories, cultures, and goals.

What Is Democracy?

Democracy is a form of government where the ultimate power and authority reside with the people of the country. It is often defined as the 'rule of the people'.

In practice, it is not feasible for every single citizen in a large country to directly participate in every decision. Therefore, in most modern democracies, people elect individuals to act on their behalf and make decisions in government. These elected individuals are called representatives.

Consider a school as an analogy: If the Head Teacher wants student input on school management, having every student participate in every decision would be impractical. Instead, students can elect class representatives who form a student committee. This committee, composed of elected representatives from different classes, can then discuss and make decisions that reflect the needs and desires of the student body. This is similar to how representatives function in a democracy, voicing the concerns of the people who elected them.

Functions Of Government

Regardless of its form, any government performs certain core functions similar to the responsibilities of a representative committee:

1. Legislative Function: This involves the creation or making of rules and laws that provide the framework for governing the country.
2. Executive Function: This is the responsibility of implementing and administering the laws and running the country according to the established rules.
3. Judicial Function: This involves ensuring that laws are followed, interpreting laws, and administering justice, including deciding on punishments for those who break the law.

In a democracy, the people select their representatives through elections, and these representatives are responsible for carrying out these three functions of government on behalf of the people. A well-known definition by former US President Abraham Lincoln describes democracy as "a government of the people, by the people, for the people."

What Makes Governments Different?

Governments around the world differ based on various factors. These differences determine how power is structured, how decisions are made, and who benefits from the system. Key aspects that differentiate forms of government include:

1. Source of Authority: Where does the government get its power and legitimacy? In a democracy, the source is the *people* (through elections). In a theocracy, it might be religious beliefs or religious leaders. In a monarchy, it's often hereditary claim or divine right.
2. Method of Formation: How does a government come into power? In democracies, it is typically through some form of *election*. In traditional monarchies, leadership is inherited within a ruling family. Other forms might involve force or selection by a small group.
3. Structure and Distribution of Power: How is the government organized? Are the three functions (legislative, executive, judicial) performed by independent bodies (separation of powers), or are they concentrated in one person or group? Is the system of governance defined by a fundamental document (like a *constitution*) or by the will of the ruler? A Constitution is a book of fundamental rules and principles governing a country.
4. Goals and Values: What is the government's primary purpose or what ideals does it strive for? Some governments aim for equality and prosperity for *all* citizens, while others might prioritize the interests of a specific family, group, or ideology.

Understanding these fundamental aspects helps differentiate various types or forms of government that exist today.

Democratic Governments Around The World

Democracy is the most widespread form of government in the contemporary world. While all democracies share some core principles, their structures and how they function can vary significantly.

Fundamental Principles Of Democracy

Despite variations, all democracies are ideally founded upon certain core principles:

• Equality: Every citizen should be treated equally before the law and have equal access to essential facilities like education and healthcare.
• Freedom: Citizens have the right to make their own choices, express their opinions freely (within legal limits), and live according to their beliefs.
• Representative Participation: Every adult citizen has the right to vote in elections to choose their representatives. This is known as Universal Adult Franchise. Elected representatives form the legislature.
• Fundamental Rights: Citizens are granted basic rights, such as the right to equality, freedom of speech and expression, and protection against exploitation.
• Independent Judiciary: The judicial branch operates independently of the executive and legislature. Its role is to protect the fundamental rights of citizens and ensure that all parts of the government, as well as citizens, adhere to the laws. An Independent Judiciary is one that is free from influence by the other branches of government.

It's important to note that these principles have evolved over time, and their full implementation varies across democracies. Universal adult franchise, for example, was not always present from the beginning in all countries that adopted democracy.

Different Forms Of Democratic Governments

Most modern democracies are representative democracies, where people elect representatives through universal adult franchise. The government, although run by representatives, remains accountable to the people. Elections are held at regular, fixed intervals (e.g., every 5 years in India, every 4 years in the USA) to allow people to express their choices and change representatives if desired.

Within representative democracies, there are two main forms regarding the relationship between the executive and legislature:

1. Parliamentary Democracy: In this system, the executive (Prime Minister and Council of Ministers) is a *part of* the legislature and is directly accountable to it. The executive remains in power as long as it has the confidence of the legislature (e.g., the Lok Sabha in India). People elect the members of the legislature, and the executive leadership is formed from within the legislature. India is an example of a parliamentary democracy.
2. Presidential Democracy: In this system, the executive (President) operates largely *independently* of the legislature. The President is typically elected separately by the people (or an electoral college) and does not require the legislature's confidence to remain in office. The United States of America is an example of a presidential democracy.

Many democracies, like India, also have federal structures with governments at national (Union), state, and local levels, each with distinct powers but interconnected within the constitutional framework.

The table below illustrates some structural differences in democratic governments:

In this table, Executive refers to the branch implementing laws, Legislature is the law-making body (Parliament in India, Congress in USA), often with an Upper House and a Lower House. Separation of Power means the three organs work independently without interfering in each other's roles.

A Peek Into History

Early Republics

While often considered a modern form of government, historical evidence suggests that republican or democratic-like traditions existed in ancient India. A republic is a form of government where the head of state is elected, not a hereditary monarch.

Some of India's ancient Mahajanapadas (large states) exhibited republican features. The Vajji (or Vriji) Mahajanapada, particularly the Lichchhavi clan, is known for its system of collective decision-making in assemblies (sabha or samiti) where leaders were chosen based on merit or election rather than birth. Representatives from various clans met regularly to address issues and ensure people's welfare. These states are often referred to as 'early republics', among the earliest known examples globally.

Historically, the value of the common people's voice was recognized in India, even under monarchies, though the degree of participation varied. The 10th-century CE Uttaramerur inscriptions from Tamil Nadu, dating back to the Chola period, provide a remarkable example of detailed rules for the election process of members to the village assembly (sabhā), including ballot boxes, qualifications for candidates, duties of members, and strict conditions for their dismissal (e.g., in case of corruption). These inscriptions highlight the presence of organized local self-governance systems.

Compared to some ancient republics in Greece and Rome, which had limited suffrage (e.g., excluding women, workers, or slaves), the principles of representation and collective decision-making in these Indian historical instances offer interesting parallels and contrasts.

Other Forms Of Government

Besides democracy, several other forms of government have existed historically and some continue to exist today.

Monarchy

A monarchy is a type of government headed by a monarch (king or queen) who typically inherits their position. Historically, monarchs' power varied. In some cases, kings held absolute power, making laws, enforcing them, and judging without constraints, sometimes claiming divine authority.

However, in many parts of India, the power of the ruler (raja) was often not absolute. The king was expected to rule according to rajadharma – the dharma (moral duty) of a ruler, which included maintaining law and order and ensuring the welfare of all people (yogakshema). The king was ideally expected to be guided by councils, ministers, and learned scholars. Ancient texts like the Mahabharata contain extensive discussions on the ideals of rajadharma, emphasizing the king's moral responsibilities and the welfare of the people as the highest priority.

Stories from historical texts, like Kalhana's Rajatarangini (12th century CE), illustrate instances where kings were expected to respect the rights and dignity of even common subjects, demonstrating the ideal of a ruler bound by dharma and fairness, even when exercising power.

Today, monarchies exist in two main forms:

1. Absolute Monarchy: The monarch holds complete *sovereign* power, with no constitutional or legal limits on their legislative, executive, or judicial authority. Example: Saudi Arabia, where the King holds absolute power and governs according to religious law, although he may be advised by a council. Sovereign means the ultimate source of power is independent from external influence.
2. Constitutional Monarchy: The monarch is the head of state but holds only *nominal* power. The real executive power is exercised by an elected government (like a Prime Minister and Cabinet), and legislative power lies with an elected Parliament. The monarch's power is limited by a constitution. Example: The United Kingdom, which has a monarch as head of state but functions as a parliamentary democracy with an elected government.

Theocracy

A theocracy is a form of government where the state is governed by religious principles, laws, and often by religious leaders. The source of authority and legitimacy is derived from religious beliefs.

Examples include Iran (Islamic Republic of Iran), which combines elements of theocracy and democracy, with a Supreme Leader having ultimate authority based on Islamic principles, alongside elected officials. Other examples are Afghanistan and Vatican City.

Dictatorship

A dictatorship is a form of government where one person (a dictator) or a small group holds absolute power. There are no constitutional limits, and they rule by force and repression. The 20th century saw numerous dictatorships that inflicted immense suffering.

Examples:

• Adolf Hitler (Germany): Gained absolute power and was responsible for the systematic persecution and murder of millions (the Holocaust) and initiating World War II, causing vast destruction. A caricature is a drawing that exaggerates features for comic or satirical effect.
• Idi Amin (Uganda): A military dictator responsible for widespread killings and forced displacement of populations, including people of Indian origin. The Roma (or Romani people) are nomadic groups believed to have originated from India.

Life under a dictatorship is characterized by severe restrictions on personal freedoms, strict rules governing daily life (clothing, movement, communication), surveillance, and lack of access to outside information. The government's power is unchecked, and citizens have no means to influence decisions or change the leadership. The story of Shane from North Korea illustrates the limited choices and constant surveillance experienced by people living under such a regime.

Oligarchy

An oligarchy (from Greek words for 'few' and 'to rule') is a form of government where political power is concentrated in the hands of a small, elite group. This group is often composed of wealthy individuals, aristocratic families, or influential people (sometimes called *political commentators* if they analyze/comment on politics).

Historically, some ancient Greek states were ruled by oligarchies (e.g., aristocratic families). In modern times, the term is sometimes used by political commentators to describe situations even in democracies where a small group of politicians and wealthy businesspeople wield disproportionate influence over governance, suggesting a deviation from the ideal of rule by the many.

The cartoon from 1889 suggests that even elected bodies can be influenced or controlled by powerful wealthy interests, raising the question of whether a democracy can evolve into an oligarchy if unchecked. Maintaining a strong democracy requires citizens to be vigilant against the concentration of power and influence in the hands of a few.

Why Democracy Matters

While various forms of government exist, democracy is widely considered preferable to others in most countries today. Comparing the characteristics of different government types helps understand why:

In a genuine democracy, citizens have the freedom to live their lives, make choices, express opinions, and follow their beliefs, provided these actions do not harm others or violate the rights of others. The government is chosen by the people through elections and is accountable for protecting their rights and providing basic needs. The ability of people to change their representatives through regular elections provides a continuous check on the government's actions, ideally ensuring that its values and goals are aligned with the well-being of all citizens.

India, as a democracy, exhibits many of these features in daily life. The widespread adoption of democracy worldwide reflects the value placed on these principles.

However, it is crucial to recognize that even democracies face challenges that can hinder the achievement of their ideals. Issues such as corruption, economic inequality (wealth disparity), undue influence of a few powerful groups (oligarchic tendencies) over democratic institutions, erosion of the judiciary's independence, and manipulation of information channels can undermine democratic principles. Remaining vigilant and actively working to minimize these challenges is essential for citizens to keep democracy strong and ensure it truly serves the interests of all.